Conjunctions
A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects (conjoins)
parts of a sentence.
You can use a conjuction to link words, phrase,
and clasuses as in the following example:
1. Co-ordinating Conjunctions: When the conjunction is
used to join two statements of equal importance, the conjunction is said to be
a co-ordinating conjunction.
Examples : and, but, or, not, for, either, neither
Examples : and, but, or, not, for, either, neither
2. Subordinating Conjunctions: When the conjunction joins two statements, one of which depends on the other for its full meaning, the conjunction is said to be a subordinating conjunction.
Examples : before, after, since, because, if, though, which, who
3. Correlative conjuctions
Correlative conjuctions always appear in paris – you
use them to link equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative
conjuctions are “both, and, either, or, neither, nor, not only, but also,
whether
Examples :
1. both my granfather and my father
worked in the steel plant.
2. Bring either a jello salad or a
potato scallop.
3. The exploison destroyed not only the
school but also the neighbouring pub.
Source: English One à Reading Texk book Stikom.
The Parts Of The
Sentences
The parts of sentance are a set of terms
for describing how people construct sentences from smaller pieces.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
Every complete sentence contains
two parts: a suject and a predicate. The subject
is what (or whom) the sentence is about, the predicate tells something about
the subject.
EXAMPLE : Judy and her dog {run
on the beach every morning}
UNUSUAL SENTENCE
Imperative sentences (sentences that give a command or an order) differ from conventional
sentences in that their subject, which is always “you”, is understood rather
that expressed.
EXAMPLE : Stand on your head. (“you” is understood before “stand”.)
Simple Subject and Simple Predicate
Every subject is built around one noun or pronoun (or
more) that, when stripped of all the words that modify it, is known as
the simple subject.
Example : A piece of pepperoni pizza would statisfy
his hunger.
The subject is built around the noun “piece”, with the
other words of the subject – “a” and “of pepperoni pizza”—modifiying the noun.”
Piece” is the sample subject.
Object And Complement
Object that completes the verb’s meaning. Two kinds of
objects direct oject and indirect object. To determine if a verb has a direct
object, isolate the verb and make it into a question by placing
“whom?” after it. The answer one. Is the direjct object
Example:
1. The advertising executive
drove a flashy red porsche.
2. Her secret admirer gave her a bouquet of flowers.
The second sentence above also
containts an indirect object. An indirect object (which, like
a direct object, is always a noun or pronoun) is,
in a sense, the recipient of the direct object.
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Verbs that take objects are known as transitive
verbs. Verbs not followed by objects are called intransitive verbs.
Subject complements
Transitive verb and the intransitive verb, there
is a third kind of verb cslled a linking verb. The word
(or phrase) which follows a linking verb is a called not sn object,
but a subject complement
Example :
1. Linking verb with suject complement
o He was a radiologist before he became
a full-time yoga instructor.
2. Transitive verb direct object
o I
can’t smell anything with this terrile cold.
Object Complements
An object complement is similar to a
subject complement, except that (obviosuly) it modifies an object rather than
a subject.
Example : the driver seems tired.
The adjective “tired” modifies the noun “driver”,
which is the subject of the sentence.
In every case, you could reconstruct the last part of
the sentence into a sentence of its own using a subject complement.
Source: English One à Reading Texk book Stikom.
PUNTUATION
punctuation will
help you understand to use different types of it and it more affectively in
your writing.
The punctuation
mark which usually causes writers the most trouble, before turning to other
types.
· Comma
comma usage :
1. use comma before a co-ordinating
conjunction that joins independent clauses are very short.
Ex : I wrapped the
fresh fish in three layers of newspaper, but my van still smelled like trout
for the next week. (comes with two independent clauses)
2. use a comma
after an introductory adverb clause and, often, after an introductory phrase
(unless the phrase is very short).
ex : in the bottom drawer you
will find some pink spandex tights. (no comma with short, closely related
phrase).
3. use a comma to separate items in a series :
playing
in a band can be exiting, but many people do not realize the hardships involved
:
constant rehearsals, laying
until 2a.m, handling drunken audience members, and transporting heavy equipment
to and from gigs. (the comma preceding “and” is optional unless needed to
prevent misreading)
4. use commas to set off non-restrictive
elements and other parenthetical elements. A non-restrictive
modifier is a phrase or clause that does not restrict or limit the
meaning of the word it is modifying.
Ex : the people of Haiti, who
for decades have lived with grinding poverty and mind-numbing violence, are
unfamiliar with the workings of a true democracy.
5. placing parenthetical
information between dashes has the opposite effect : it emphasis the material:
ex : Mr. Grundy's diving record-with one
exception-was exemplary.
· Superfluous commas
equally important
in understand how to use commas effectively is knowing when not use
them.
1. . Do not use a comma to
separate the subject from its predicate.
2. Do not use a comma to separate a verb from its
object or its subject complement, or a preposition from its object.
3. Do not misuse a comma after a co-ordinating conjunction
4. Do not use commas to set off
words and short phrases (especially introductory ones) that are not
parenthetical or that are very slightly so.
5. Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements.
6. Do not use a comma before the first item or after the last item of a
series.
· Collon
When to use a
colon
the colon focuses
the reader's attention on what is to follow, and as a result, you should use it
to introduce a list, a summation, or an idea that somehow completes the
introductory idea.
When Not to Use a
Colon
you should not
place a colon between a verb and its object or subject complement, or between a
preposition and its object.
[WRONG]
His neighbor lent him : a pup-tent, a wooden canoe, and a slightly battered
Coleman stove. (colon between verb and objects)
[RIGHT]
His neighbor lent him a pup-tent, a wooden canoe, and a slightly battered
Coleman stove.
Source: English
One à Reading Texk book
Stikom.
Articles
Definition of articles
English has two types of articles: definite (the) and
indefinite (a,an). The use of these articles depends mainly on wheather you are
referring to any member of a group , or to specific member of a group:
1. Indenfinite articles: a and an
A and an signal
that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. The
rule is :
· A + singular noun beginning with a consonant : a
boy.
· An + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an
elephant.
· A + singular noun beginning with a consonant
sound: a user.
· Some + plural noun : some girls
If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice
between a and an depends on the initial
sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:
· A broken
egg
· An unusual
problem
· A european
country (sounds like’ yer-o-pi-an,’ i.e. begins with consonant ‘y’ sound)
Note also that in English, the indefinite articles are
used to indicate membership in a profession, nation, or religion.
· I am a teacher
· Brian is an Irishman
· Seiko is a praciticing Buddhist
2. Definite Article: the
The definite article is used before singular and
plural nouns when the noun is particular or spesific. The signals
that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group.
Indefinite
(a or
an) Definite
(the)
Singular a dog (any
dog) the
dog (that specific dog)
An
apple (any
apple) the
apple (that specific apple)
Plural some dogs (any
dogs) the
dogs (those specific dogs)
Some
apples (any apples) the
apples (those specific apples)
Ø The
is not used with noncountable nouns referring to something in a general sense:
o Coffe is a popular drink.
o Japanese was his native languege.
Ø The
is used with noncountable nouns that are made more specific by a limiting
modifying phrase or clause:
o The coffe in my cup is toot hot to drink.
o The japanese he speaks is often heard in the
countryside.
Ø The
is also used when a noun refers to something unique:
o The white house
o The theory of relavity
Do not use the before:
· Names of countries (Italy, Mexico, Bolivia) except the
netherlands and the US
· Names of cities, towns, or states (Seoul, Manitoba,
Miami)
· Names of streets (Washington Blvd., Main St)
· Names of lakes and bays (Lake Titicaca, Lake
Erie)except with a group of lakes like the great Lakes
· Names of mountains (Mount Everest, Mount Fuji) except
with ranges of mountains like the andes or the Rockies or unusual name like the
Matterhorn
· Names of continents (Asia, Europe)
· Name of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Ket West) except
with island chains like the aleutians, the hebrides, or the Canary Islands
Do use The before
· Names of rivers, oceans and seas (the Nile, the
Pacific)
· Points on the globe (the Equator, the North Pole)
· Geographicial areas (the Middle East, the West)
· Desets, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas (the
Sahara, the Perisan gulf)
Further Uses of a Articles
In addition, use of a, an, and the also depends on
whether the noun following the article prossesses one of these paired
qualities:
· Countable vs Noncountable
· First vs Subseqeunt mation
· General vs spesific
1. Countable vs Nouncountable
A and an are
used if the noun can be counted
Example :
o I stepped in a puddle. (how many
puddles did you step in? Just one. Therefore, use a)
o I drank a glass of milk. (glasses of milk can be
counted)
The must
be used when the noun cannot be counted.
Example
o I dove into the water. (how many
waters did you dive into? The question doesn’t make any sense because water is
noncountale. Therefore, use the)
o I saw the milk spill. (how many
milks? Milk cannot be counted)
2. First vs Subsequent Mention
A or an is
used to itroduce a noun when it is mentioned for the first time a piece of
writing.
Note : there is and there
are can be used to introduce an indefinite noun at the beginning of a
paragraph or easy.
3. General vs Specific
A, an and the can all be used to indicate
that a noun refers to the whole class to which individual countable nouns
belong.
Example :
o A tiger is dangerous animal. (any individual tiger)
o The tiger is a dangerous animal. (all tigers: tiger as
a generic category)
Source: English One à Reading Texk book Stikom.
s-v agreement
Subject Verb agreement can be tricky for many
people. As a matter of fact, one of the common comments teachers write on
student essays is, “Watch your subject verb agreement!”
If you’ve ever had a comment like that
written on one of your essays or if you’d just like to brush up on your subject
verb agreement rules, here some tips that are sure to help. The subject verb
agreement refers to the fact that the subject and verb in a sentence must agree
in number. In other words, they both must be singular or they both must be
plural. You can’t have a singular subject with a plural verb or vice versa. The
tricky part is in knowing the singular and plural forms of subjects and verbs.
Singular and plural subjects, or nouns, are usually pretty easy. In most cases
the plural form of a noun has an “s” at the end.
Examples :
1. Car –
singular
2. Cars –
plural
Verbs don’t follow this pattern, though.
Adding an “s” to a verb doesn’t make a plural.
Examples :
1. Walk
2. Walks
Which one is the singular form and which
is the plural form? Here’s a tip for you. Ask yourself which would you use with
the word they and which would you use with he or she.
Examples :
1. He walks.
2. She walks.
They walk.
Since he and she are
singular pronouns walks is a singular verb. The word they is
plural so walkis the plural form
The subject and verb must agree in
number: both must be singular, or both must be plural. Problems occur in the
present tense because one must add an -s or -es at
the end of the verb when the subjects or the entity performing the action is a
singular third person: he, she, it, or
words for which these pronouns could substitute.
The subject and verb in
a sentence must both be either singular or plural. We can't have a singular
subject with a plural verb or a plural subject with a singular verb. The
subject and verb have to agree in number. (For more information on the basic
rules of subject-verb agreement.
Indefinite pronouns are non-specific words like someone, others, several or none. Some of these pronouns are always singular or always
plural. But some can change their number—they can be either singular or plural,
depending on the context.
It is important to know whether an indefinite pronoun
subject is singular or plural so that we can make the verb agree.
Phrases
A phrases is a group of releted words that lacks both
a suject and predicate. Because it lacks a subject and predicate it cannot act
as a sentence.
1. PREPOTIONAL PHRASE
The prepositional phrase includes the preposition and
the object of the preposition as well as any modifiers related
to either.
Example : ABOVE is not an adverb because it has an
object to completes its meaning; therefore, ABOVE is a preposition and the
entire phrase is an adverb phrase.
2. PARTICIPAL PHRASE
The participal phrase includes the participle and
the object of the participle or any words modified by or
related to the participle.
{in the following examples, the particple is bold and
the participial phrase is underlined.}
Example :
· the car sliding out of control toward
building is going to hit the window.
o SLIDING modifies the CAR. The verb is IS GOING.
3. GERUND PHRASE
The gerund phrase includes the gerund and
the object of the gerund or any modifiers related to the
gerund.
Example:
· Flying above
the lake at this time of night seems a little
dangerous.
o FLYING is
the subject of the sentence. A subject is a noun. A form of the verb ending in
ING and used as a noun is a gerund. FLYING is a gerund.
4. INFINITIVE PHRASE
The invinitive phrase includes the infinitive and
the object of the invinitive or any modifiers related to the
invinitive.
Example :
· The gap provides a way to give democratic
candidates an edge in close elections
o TO GIVE is an adjective modifying WAY . The object of
the invinitive is CANDIDATES
5. APPOSITIVES
A word, phrase or clause that
means the same thing as or futher explains another noun (pronoun)
Non-restrictive appositives are not essential to the
meaning of the sentence.
Restrictive appositives are essential to the meaning
of the sentence.
1. NON-RESTRICTIVE:
§ Her husband, fritz, is a nice guy
· We assume she has only one husband. Thus, commas are
used.
2. RESTRICTIVE
§ We students are happy with good
grades.
· STUDENT
identify who WE [subj] are. If we remove it, WE does not have the meaning.
Source: English One à Reading Texk book Stikom.
0 komentar:
Posting Komentar